I. Answer in one word or one sentence.Establishment of Greek and Roman Empires – Contributions

Question 1.
Which is the most ancient civilization in Europe?
Answer:
The Greek civilization is the most ancient civilization in Europe.

Question 2.
On which river valley did the Greek civilization develop?
Answer:
The Greek civilization developed along the Danube River valley.

Question 3.
What does the word ‘Hellenes’ mean?
Answer:
Ancient Greeks were called ‘Hellenes’ as they claimed descent from a common ancestor named Hellenes.

Question 4.
In which civilization do we find city-states?
Answer:
City-states were a characteristic of the Greek civilization.

Question 5.
In which city-state of Greece did democracy develop?
Answer:
Democracy developed in the city-state of Athens.

Question 6.
Whose period is known as the ‘Golden Age’ of Athens?
Answer:
The period of Pericles is known as the ‘Golden Age’ of Athens.

Question 7.
Who is regarded as the father of medicine?
Answer:
Hippocrates is regarded as the father of medicine.

Question 8.
Between whom were the Peloponnesian Wars fought?
Answer:
The Peloponnesian Wars were fought between Sparta and Athens.

Question 9.
Name the battle in which Alexander defeated Porus.
Answer:
Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes (Battle of Jhelum) in 326 BCE.

Question 10.
Which Indian king defeated Seleucus?
Answer:
Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus.

Question 11.
Who was Euripides?
Answer:
Euripides was a Greek dramatist who specialized in tragic plays.

Question 12.
Who authored the book ‘Peloponnesian Wars’?
Answer:
Thucydides authored the book ‘Peloponnesian Wars.’

Question 13.
Who wrote the book ‘The Republic’?
Answer:
Plato wrote the book ‘The Republic.’

Question 14.
When did the Olympic Games begin?
Answer:
The Olympic Games began in 776 BCE.

Question 15.
What were the Greeks originally called?
Answer:
The Greeks were originally called ‘Hellenes.’

Question 16.
Which language did the early Greeks speak?
Answer:
The early Greeks spoke an Indo-European language.

Question 17.
What were the important features of the Periclean age?
Answer:
Key features of the Periclean age included the participation of even the poorest citizens in political affairs and the establishment of the jury system.

Question 18.
When was Athens destroyed?
Answer:
Athens was destroyed during the Persian Wars.

Question 19.
Who rebuilt Athens?
Answer:
Pericles rebuilt Athens.

Question 20.
What material was used to build the famous Parthenon?
Answer:
The Parthenon was built with coloured marble stones.

Question 21.
Who is known as the ‘Father of History’?
Answer:
Herodotus (485-425 BCE) is the ‘Father of History.’

Question 22.
Who were the poets during the Golden Age of Pericles?
Answer:
Sappho and Pindar were prominent poets during the Golden Age of Pericles.

Question 23.
Which parts of Alexander’s empire came under Antigonus’ control?
Answer:
Macedonia and Greece came under Antigonus’ control.

Question 24.
Who is called the ‘Father of Anatomy’?
Answer:
Herophilus is called the ‘Father of Anatomy.’

Question 25.
What was Ptolemy’s belief about the Earth and the universe?
Answer:
Ptolemy believed that the Earth was the centre of the universe.

Question 26.
Which kingdom became important under Philip II?
Answer:
Macedonia, in northeastern Greece, became important under Philip II.

Question 27.
On which riverbank did the Roman civilization develop?
Answer:
The Roman civilization developed along the banks of the River Tiber.

Question 28.
When was the Roman Republic established?
Answer:
The Roman Republic was established in 509 BCE.

Question 29.
From which word is the name ‘Rome’ derived?
Answer:
The name ‘Rome’ is derived from Romulus, one of the city’s founders.

Question 30.
The word ‘Republic’ is derived from which Latin word?
Answer:
The word ‘Republic’ is derived from the Latin word República, meaning ‘a thing of the people.’

Question 31.
Who was Hannibal?
Answer:
Hannibal was a Carthaginian general known for his brilliant military victories, although he could not capture Rome.

Question 32.
Who became the first dictator of Rome?
Answer:
Marius became the first dictator of Rome.

Question 33.
Who mediated between Julius Caesar and Pompey?
Answer:
Crassus acted as a mediator between Julius Caesar and Pompey.

Question 34.
Whose famous words were “Veni, Vidi, Vici”?
Answer:
These famous words were spoken by Julius Caesar.

Question 35.
Which battle saw Julius Caesar defeat Pompey?
Answer:
Julius Caesar defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus.

Question 36.
Who was Cleopatra?
Answer:
Cleopatra was the Queen of Egypt.

Question 37.
Who was responsible for the murder of Julius Caesar?
Answer:
Brutus was responsible for the murder of Julius Caesar.

Question 38.
Name the greatest ruler of the Roman Empire.
Answer:
Augustus Caesar is regarded as the greatest ruler of the Roman Empire.

Question 39.
What was Augustus Caesar’s original name?
Answer:
Augustus Caesar’s original name was Gaius Octavius.

Question 40.
What is the meaning of ‘Augustus’?
Answer:
The name ‘Augustus’ means holy or dignified.

II. Answer in 2 words or 2 sentences.Establishment of Greek and Roman Empires – Contributions

Question 1.
Name any two City-States of ancient Greece.
Answer:
The important City-States of ancient Greece included Sparta, Athens, Macedonia, Corinth, and Thebes.

Question 2.
Name any two reforms introduced by Solon.
Answer:
1. Solon introduced coin currency to help Athenian merchants and encouraged foreign artisans to settle in Athens.
2. He implemented a system that allowed people to elect their magistrates and evaluate their performance, benefiting both middle and poor-class Athenians.

Question 3.
Mention any two reforms of Cleisthenes.
Answer:
1. Cleisthenes granted citizenship rights to male adults, which broke the power of the ruling clans and allowed poor people to vote.
2. He reorganized the state, paving the way for democratic governance.

Question 4.
Where is the Parthenon temple? Who built it?
Answer:
The Parthenon temple is located in Athens and was built by Pericles.

Question 5.
Name any two Dramatists of the Periclean Age.
Answer:
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were prominent dramatists of the Periclean Age.

Question 6.
Mention any two Philosophers of the Periclean Age.
Answer:
Socrates and his pupil Plato were two renowned philosophers of the Periclean Age.

Question 7.
Name any two important Historians of the Periclean Age.
Answer:
Herodotus (485–425 B.C.E.), regarded as the father of history, and Thucydides (471–400 B.C.E.) were two important historians of the Periclean Age.

Question 8.
Name any two battles in which Alexander defeated the Persians.
Answer:
Alexander, with his army of 35,000 soldiers, defeated the Persians in the battles of Granicus, Issus, and Arbela.

Question 9.
Which are the two works of Homer?
Answer:
The two famous works of Homer are the Iliad and Odyssey.

Question 10.
Who were the two lyric poets of Greek Civilization?
Answer:
Pindar and Sappho were the two renowned lyric poets of Greek Civilization.

Question 11.
Name the two works of Aeschylus.
Answer:
The works of Aeschylus include Prometheus Bound and Agamemnon.

Question 12.
Mention any two works of Sophocles.
Answer:
Sophocles’ notable works include Oedipus Rex, Antigone, and Electra.

Question 13.
Who were the famous mathematicians of ancient Greece?
Answer:
Pythagoras and Euclid were the renowned mathematicians of ancient Greece, known for their significant contributions to mathematics, especially geometry.

Question 14.
Mention any two styles of ancient Greek architecture.
Answer:
The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles were the main styles of ancient Greek architecture.

Question 15.
Mention any two important Philosophers of ancient Greece.
Answer:
The most famous philosophers of ancient Greece were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

Question 16.
Mention any two works of Plato.
Answer:
Plato’s notable works include Republic and The Laws.

Question 17.
Mention any two works of Aristotle.
Answer:
Aristotle’s significant works are The Politics and History of Animals.

Question 18.
What is Classical Civilization?
Answer:
The term “classical” refers to the pinnacle of development achieved by ancient civilizations.

Question 19.
Write about Athenian Democracy.
Answer:
Athenians made significant advancements in politics, law, literature, art, science, and philosophy. They rejected monarchy and oligarchy as unsuitable systems for their temperament. With the contributions of Draco, Solon, and Cleisthenes, democracy was established in Athens.

Question 20.
Who was Draco?
Answer:
Draco was an Athenian nobleman who introduced a written code of laws. These laws ensured protection from the tyranny of corrupt and dishonest judges but did little to alleviate the struggles of poor farmers.

Question 21.
Who was Solon?
Answer:
Solon introduced constitutional reforms of a democratic nature in Athens. He freed enslaved farmers from debts and land mortgages, introduced coin currency, and encouraged foreign artisans to settle in Athens.

Question 22.
Who was Cleisthenes?
Answer:
Cleisthenes, a member of an influential Athenian family, ended the dominance of ruling clans by granting citizenship rights to male adults. This allowed poor people the right to vote, abolished the tribal nature of government, and set the state on a democratic path.

Question 23.
Name the great Greek dramatists who wrote tragic plays.
Answer:
The great Greek dramatists who wrote tragic plays were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.

Question 24.
Which is regarded as the ‘School of Hellas’ and ‘The Golden Age’?
Answer:
The Periclean Age of Athens is regarded as the ‘School of Hellas’ and ‘The Golden Age’.

Question 25.
Which are the epics written by Homer?
Answer:
Homer’s epics include the Iliad and Odyssey.

Question 26.
What plays did the greatest Greek tragedian write?
Answer:
Sophocles, the greatest Greek tragedian, wrote Oedipus Rex, Antigone, and Electra.

Question 27.
Who founded the city of Rome?
Answer:
The city of Rome was founded by twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, in 753 BCE on Palatine Hill.

Question 28.
Name the ‘First Triumvirate’ of the Roman Empire.
Answer:
The members of the First Triumvirate were Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Crassus.

Question 29.
Which are the books written by Julius Caesar?
Answer:
Julius Caesar authored the Gallic Wars and Civil Wars.

Question 30.
Name any two reforms introduced by Julius Caesar.
Answer:
1. Julius Caesar increased the strength of the Senate while reducing its power.
2. He distributed public lands and created employment opportunities for the poor.
3. He extended citizenship rights to provincial subjects.

Question 31.
Who formed the ‘Second Triumvirate’?
Answer:
Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian formed the Second Triumvirate.

Question 32.
What is the Coliseum?
Answer:
The Coliseum was an amphitheatre in Rome used for gladiator fights. Built in 80 CE by Emperor Vespasian, it could accommodate about 50,000 spectators.

Question 33.
Mention the two important Generals of Augustus Caesar.
Answer:
The two important generals of Augustus Caesar were Agrippa and Maecenas.

Question 34.
Name any four poets or historians who adorned the court of Augustus Caesar.
Answer:
The poets and historians who adorned the court of Augustus Caesar include Livy, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Pliny, and Tacitus.

Question 35.
What is Pax Romana?
Answer:
Pax Romana, meaning “Roman Peace,” refers to a period of unprecedented peace and stability in the Mediterranean world during the reign of Augustus Caesar.

Question 36.
What are the ‘Twelve Tables’?
Answer:
The Twelve Tables were the first written code of Roman law, created in 450 BCE. Previously, laws were interpreted by priests, but this codification made the laws accessible to all citizens.

Question 37.
What is Jus Gentium?
Answer:
Jus Gentium was a part of Roman law that applied to foreigners in Rome and to non-citizens living within Roman territories.

Question 38.
Name any two historians of ancient Rome.
Answer:
Two prominent historians of ancient Rome were Livy and Virgil.

Question 39.
What is the Pantheon?
Answer:
The Pantheon is one of the most famous and best-preserved Roman buildings. It was originally constructed during the reign of Augustus and later rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian.

Question 40.
From where did the first inhabitants of Italy come?
Answer:
The first inhabitants of Italy originated from North Africa, Spain, and France.

Question 41.
Name any two hills on which Rome was built.
Answer:
Rome was built on seven hills, including:
1. The Palatine
2. The Capitoline
Other hills include the Caelian, Esquiline, Aventine, Viminal, and Quirinal. (Any two)

Question 42.
What is a World State?
Answer:
The concept of a World State involves having a uniform system of administration and common laws across all countries. This idea was first proposed by Alexander and later given a practical demonstration by the Romans.

Question 43.
Who was Galen?
Answer:
Galen was the greatest physician of the Roman era. He conducted a scientific study of the human body, wrote extensively on human anatomy, and was the first to discover the circulation of blood.

Question 44.
Who were the Etruscans?
Answer:
The Etruscans were a group of people who settled near the Tiber River around 1000 BCE. They were skilled architects and engineers, and the Romans learned from them techniques such as swamp drainage and road construction.

III. Answer in 15 to 20 sentences.Establishment of Greek and Roman Empires – Contributions

Question 1.
Write a short note on the City-States of ancient Greece.

Answer:
The city-state was a remarkable political achievement of the Greeks. Its development was influenced by the topographical features of Greece and the tribal characteristics of its people. The Polis originated as a fortified site but eventually came to be understood as a sovereign state. It consisted of the fort, the city, and the surrounding countryside.

Around 800 BCE, Greek villages began merging into larger units, forming city-states. At the highest point of a city-state, an Acropolis or citadel was built for defence, with the city expanding around it. Important city-states included Sparta, Athens, Macedonia, Corinth, and Thebes.

Despite being independent and often quarrelsome, the Greek city-states were united by a shared identity as Hellenes. Common bonds included their language, literature, and the worship of gods like Zeus, Apollo, and Athena.

Question 2.
Explain briefly how democracy developed in Athens.

Answer:
Initially, the Greek city-states were ruled by monarchs, with governance assisted by councils made up of nobles. Over time, wealthy landowners seized political power, abolishing monarchy. However, as populations grew and trade, commerce, and industry expanded, a middle class emerged. This middle class joined forces with poor farmers to challenge the dominance of landowners.

The resulting conflicts led to the rise of leaders known as “dictators” or “tyrants,” as the Greeks called them. However, significant political changes occurred, particularly in Sparta and Athens. Sparta became a military state ruled by a small group of nobles, with two of them serving as kings.

In contrast, Athens made remarkable progress in politics, law, literature, art, science, and philosophy. Athenians, known for their love of political experimentation, found neither monarchy nor oligarchy suitable. They discarded these systems, and through the contributions of lawgivers such as Draco, Solon, and Cleisthenes, democracy was established in Athens.

Question 3.
Why is the Periclean Age called the Golden Age?

Answer:
The Periclean Age is called the Golden Age because Athenian democracy reached its peak under the leadership of Pericles. A visionary and radical political leader, Pericles completed the foundations of democracy in Athens. He transferred political powers from the Areopagus to the Council of Five Hundred, which proposed measures to the Ecclesia (the Assembly). These measures were openly discussed by all citizens, and laws were passed, reflecting what we now call Direct Democracy.

One significant feature of the Periclean Age was the jury system, with around 5,000 jurors elected annually for a one-year term. Pericles, a staunch advocate of democracy, encouraged even the poorest citizens to participate in political affairs.

Athens, which had been destroyed during the Persian Wars, was rebuilt by Pericles into a centre of art, architecture, and culture. Magnificent public buildings, including the Parthenon, a temple built from coloured marble, were constructed to beautify the city. Pericles also patronized music and the arts.

To protect Athens from foreign invaders, Pericles constructed the “Long Walls,” connecting the city to its port at Piraeus. The Periclean Age also witnessed the emergence of great thinkers and artists. Philosophers such as Socrates and Plato flourished, while dramatists like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides elevated Greek theatre. Hippocrates, known as the “Father of Medicine,” and historians like Herodotus (“The Father of History”) and Thucydides made remarkable contributions. Poets such as Sappho and Pindar also thrived during this era.

Due to its unparalleled achievements in democracy, culture, art, and learning, the Periclean Age of Athens is rightly regarded as the School of Hellas and the Golden Age.

Question 4.
What are the contributions of the Greeks to Literature?

Answer:
The Greeks made significant contributions to literature in Epics, Poetry, Drama, History, and Oratory. Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are iconic epics that provide insights into early Greek society. Greek lyric poetry, with poets like Pindar and Sappho, expressed personal and emotional themes.

Greek drama, particularly tragedy, is well-known, with Aeschylus, Sophocles (Oedipus Rex, Antigone), and Euripides (Trojan Women) shaping the genre. Aristophanes was a master of comedy.

In history, Herodotus, Thucydides (Peloponnesian Wars), and Plutarch (Lives of Illustrious Men) made lasting contributions. The art of oratory flourished with Demosthenes as the most famous orator.

Question 5.
Briefly explain the contributions of the Greeks to Science.

Answer:
Greek philosophers laid the groundwork for scientific study. Aristotle is considered the father of natural science, while his student, Theophrastus, founded botany. Hippocrates, known as the “Father of Medicine,” taught that diseases had natural causes rather than being caused by evil spirits. Herophilus is regarded as the “Father of Anatomy.”

Ptolemy believed the Earth was the centre of the universe, but Aristarchus proposed that the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun. Eratosthenes accurately calculated the Earth’s circumference and created an early map of the world, suggesting a westward route to India.

Mathematicians like Pythagoras and Euclid made significant contributions to geometry, while Archimedes is another notable scientist from ancient Greece.

Question 6.
What are the contributions of the Greeks to Art and Architecture?

Answer:
In early times, the Greeks built temples using wood, sun-dried bricks, and marble. Greek architecture featured three distinct styles: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Parthenon, built by Pericles, is considered one of the most beautiful temples, made of coloured marble stones. Inside, there was a tall marble statue of Goddess Athena, carved by Phidias.

The temple had 46 Doric columns, each 34 feet high, and blended Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles, making it a wonder of the ancient world.

Greek sculptures focused on human beauty and strength, often depicting gods and humans with idealized, muscular bodies. Renowned sculptors like Myron, famous for the Discus Thrower, and Phidias were instrumental in this artistic tradition. Greek artists also excelled in painting on vases.

Alexander’s conquests led to cultural exchanges that influenced art, including the Gandhara art in ancient India.

Question 7.
Explain the religion of the ancient Greeks.

Answer:
Greek religion was distinct in that it did not focus on a single God but instead revered powerful and beautiful gods. The Twelve Olympian gods were central, with three key figures: Zeus, Apollo, and Athena. Zeus was the king of the gods and the father of men, Apollo was his son, and Athena was the protectress of cities. They resided on Mount Olympus and were believed to visit Earth occasionally.

Unlike other religions, the Greeks did not have an organized church or a sacred text. They celebrated festivals, such as the Olympics, which began in 776 BCE. Oracles, especially the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, were consulted for predictions and judgments.

Question 8.
Why is Aristotle regarded as the ‘Walking University’?

Answer:
Aristotle, one of the greatest Greek philosophers, was a student of Plato and the teacher of Alexander the Great. A philosopher and scientist, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, biology, and political science. He is known as the father of these fields. Aristotle famously stated, “Man is a social animal” and advocated for constitutional governments.

He was instrumental in classifying and organizing knowledge into distinct branches like physics, metaphysics, logic, and ethics. His notable works include The Politics and History of Animals. Due to his vast contributions to various fields of knowledge, Aristotle earned the title of the “Walking University.”

Question 9.
Explain briefly the Roman wars with Carthage.

Answer:
The Roman Wars with Carthage, known as the Punic Wars, were a series of conflicts between the Roman Republic and Carthage (modern-day Tunisia) over control of the Western Mediterranean. These wars took place in three stages (264-146 BCE).

The First Punic War was mainly a naval conflict, in which Rome emerged victorious. In the Second Punic War, Carthage, led by the brilliant general Hannibal, won several notable battles but was unable to capture Rome. The Romans used guerrilla tactics and delayed strategies to ultimately defeat the Carthaginians. Hannibal committed suicide after their defeat. In the Third Punic War, Rome invaded Carthage, completely destroyed the city, and solidified its dominance over the Mediterranean.

Question 10.
Write a short note on Julius Caesar.

Answer:
Julius Caesar was a remarkable general, dictator, and reformer, embodying the power of ancient Rome. He was part of the First Triumvirate, along with Pompey and Crassus, who divided the Roman Empire among themselves—Caesar ruled Gaul, Crassus governed Parthia, and Pompey controlled Spain. The Triumvirate fell apart after Crassus’s death.

Caesar achieved significant victories in Gaul and Britain, and famously declared, “Veni, Vidi, Vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”) after his triumph in Asia Minor. Tensions with Pompey led to a civil war, where Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalus and pursued him to Egypt, where Pompey was killed. With Egypt under Queen Cleopatra as an ally, Caesar became Rome’s dictator.

His reforms included strengthening the Senate, redistributing land, providing employment to the poor, and instituting changes such as agricultural improvement, tax reduction, and the introduction of the Julian calendar. Despite his success, Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE by a group of senators, including Brutus. He was also an influential orator and writer.

Question 11.
Explain briefly the rise of the Eastern Roman Empire.

Answer:
After the reign of Augustus Caesar, many of his successors, except for Marcus Aurelius, were ineffective or tyrannical rulers, with Caligula and Nero being notable examples. The Roman Empire faced a period of decline, but Emperor Diocletian and his successors took steps to stabilize it.

In 330 CE, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, a city built on the site of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey). This marked the beginning of the Eastern Roman Empire. Constantine also issued the Edict of Milan, granting religious freedom to Christians and initiating the Christianization of the Empire.

Emperor Justinian, the last great ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire, controlled both the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire. His major achievements include the creation of the ‘Justinian Code’ and the construction of iconic buildings in Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire, with Constantinople as its capital, survived until its fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE.

Question 12.
What is Pax Romana? Explain.

Answer:
Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace,” refers to a period of relative peace and stability across the Roman Empire, which spanned three continents—Europe, Asia, and Africa. This era, lasting about two centuries from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius, marked the cessation of constant warfare that had plagued the Mediterranean world, as Rome’s powerful military established and maintained control.

During this time, trade and commerce flourished, leading to prosperity for many. Cities were developed, temples were built, and cultural advancements took place. Roman citizenship was granted to those within the empire’s territories, ensuring equal treatment across its diverse population. Pax Romana created an environment where Roman civilization could thrive.

Question 13.
Write a short note on Roman law.

Answer:
One of the most significant contributions of the Romans was their development of a body of laws, which has had a lasting influence on modern legal systems worldwide. Roman law played a key role in maintaining order within the vast Roman Empire, an achievement the Greeks could not replicate. Roman legal principles promoted travel, and trade, and ensured justice across the empire. Many English legal terms, like “law,” “legal,” “justice,” “equality,” and “judge,” are derived from Latin.

Initially, laws were interpreted by priests, but the first written code, the Twelve Tables, was established in 150 BCE. Roman law evolved to keep pace with economic changes, legalizing commercial transactions and ensuring equality before the law.

Roman law is categorized into two parts:
1. Jus Civilis: Laws that applied only to Roman citizens.
2. Jus Gentium: Laws that applied to foreigners and non-citizens within Roman territories.
Emperor Justinian later codified Roman law, which influenced legal systems from the common law of England to the Napoleonic Code.

Question 14.
What are the contributions of Romans to language and literature?

Answer:
Latin, the language of the ancient Roman Empire, became the dominant language of the civilized world before the fall of Rome. It remained influential throughout the Middle Ages, especially in the Church, science, law, and education.
In literature, the Romans largely imitated Greek styles. The “Golden Age” saw works by Cicero, Catullus, and Lucretius, while Julius Caesar wrote about the “Gallic Wars” and “Civil Wars.” During the Augustan period, Virgil wrote the Aeneid, Horace produced lyrics, and Livy wrote History of Rome. The “Silver Age” featured the tragedies of Seneca, Juvenal’s satires, and Tacitus’ Annals and Histories. Pliny the Elder wrote Natural History, and Marcus Aurelius authored Meditations.

IV. Answer in 30 to 40 Sentences. Establishment of Greek and Roman Empires – Contributions

Question 1.
Explain the achievements of Pericles.

Answer:
Under Pericles’ leadership, Athenian democracy reached its peak. He, a descendant of Clisthenes, strengthened democracy by transferring power from the Areopagus (the legislative body) to the council of five hundred. This council proposed measures to the Assembly, where laws were debated and passed by the citizens of Athens. Pericles also established a board of ten generals, with himself as president, responsible to the Assembly, ensuring no dictator-like power.

A major achievement was the introduction of the jury system, where about 5000 jurors were elected annually, allowing even the poorest citizens to engage in politics—laying the groundwork for modern direct democracy.

After Athens was devastated in the Persian Wars, Pericles oversaw its reconstruction. The city became a hub of art and architecture, with grand public buildings like the Parthenon, constructed with coloured marble. To safeguard Athens from invaders, he built long walls connecting the city to the port of Piraeus.

Pericles also patronized music and the arts, supporting philosophers like Socrates and Plato. His era saw the flourishing of Greek tragedy, with playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Notable figures like Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” Herodotus, the “Father of History,” and Thucydides thrived during his reign, marking the Golden Age of Greece.

Question 2.
Discuss the contributions of the Greeks.

Answer:
1. Cultural Contributions:
The Greeks greatly influenced human civilization, excelling in Literature, Philosophy, Science, Politics, Art, and Architecture. Their ideals of beauty, knowledge, and curiosity shaped Western culture.

2. Literature:
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are epic masterpieces. Greek drama flourished with tragedies by Aeschylus (Prometheus Bound), Sophocles (Oedipus Rex), and Euripides (The Trojan Women). Comedy was led by Aristophanes. Historians like Herodotus and Thucydides documented history, while Demosthenes excelled in oratory.

3. Science:
Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” advanced medicine, while Pythagoras and Euclid contributed to mathematics. Eratosthenes calculated Earth’s circumference, and Archimedes excelled in physics.

4. Art and Architecture:
The Parthenon, a blend of Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian styles, exemplifies Greek architectural brilliance. Sculptors like Phidias celebrated human beauty, and Greek influence shaped Gandhara art in India.

5. Legacy:
Greek ideals in democracy, science, and arts have left a timeless, universal impact on global civilization.

Question 3.
Write about Alexander the Great (336–323 B.C.E).

Answer:
Alexander the Great is one of history’s most remarkable figures. At 20, he succeeded his father, Philip II of Macedonia, and aspired to conquer the world. Tutored by Aristotle, Alexander united Greece and defeated the Persian Empire in battles such as Granicus, Issus, and Arbela.

He conquered Egypt and founded Alexandria. Marching into India, he defeated King Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes (326 B.C.E.). However, his exhausted army refused to advance further. At the peak of his power, Alexander died of fever in Babylon at 33.

Though his empire did not last, Alexander spread Hellenic culture, founded 70 cities, and fostered trade and cultural exchange. His conquests blended Greek and Eastern traditions, influencing arts like the Gandhara School in India and leaving a lasting legacy of cultural fusion.

Question 4.
Explain the life and achievements of Augustus Caesar.

Answer:
Augustus Caesar, a wise ruler and statesman, ushered in a period of peace and prosperity for Rome, known as the “Golden Age.” Following Julius Caesar’s assassination, Rome was in turmoil until Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate, defeating Caesar’s assassins at the Battle of Philippi. Eventually, Augustus became the sole ruler after defeating Antony at the Battle of Actium and taking control of Egypt.

By 27 BCE, Augustus became the first Roman Emperor, ruling for 44 years under titles such as Princeps (first citizen) and Imperator. He established the “Principate,” introducing reforms that stabilized Rome, strengthened law and order, and improved governance in provinces. He stopped corruption, reorganized the army, and created new courts and postal systems.

Augustus invested heavily in infrastructure, building roads, bridges, amphitheatres like the Colosseum, and public buildings. His reign fostered trade with countries like India and China and made Rome a hub of commerce. He also provided free grain to the poor, ensuring their support.

His era produced great writers like Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and historians such as Livy. The Augustan Age is remembered for its peace (Pax Romana), prosperity, and cultural achievements. Jesus Christ was born during his reign, and his imperial system lasted nearly 500 years, preserving Greco-Roman civilization.