I. Answer in one word or one sentence. History of Ancient Civilization

Question 1.
On which riverbank did the Egyptian civilization develop?
Answer:
The Egyptian civilization developed along the banks of the River Nile.

Question 2.
What is Egyptian writing called?
Answer:
The early Egyptian pictographic writing was known as Hieroglyphics.

Question 3.
Who was the first woman Empress in the world?
Answer:
Hatshepsut, the daughter of Thutmose I, was the first woman Empress.

Question 4.
Why did Egyptians preserve the dead bodies of their Kings?
Answer:
Egyptians preserved the dead bodies of their Kings because they believed in the transmigration of souls and considered their Kings as Gods.

Question 5.
Which is the biggest pyramid in the world?
Answer:
The Pyramid of Giza is the largest pyramid in the world.

Question 6.
What is the meaning of the word ‘Mesopotamia’?
Answer:
Mesopotamia is a Greek word that means “land between two rivers.”

Question 7.
Who built the Hanging Gardens?
Answer:
King Nebuchadnezzar constructed the Hanging Gardens in Babylon.

Question 8.
What is a ziggurat?
Answer:
Ziggurats are temple towers built by the Mesopotamians.

Question 9.
Who was the greatest ruler of China?
Answer:
Shih Huang Ti is regarded as the greatest ruler of China.

Question 10.
Who was the proponent of Taoism?
Answer:
Lao Tse, a renowned philosopher, was the founder of Taoism.

Question 11.
Who introduced Buddhism to China?
Answer:
Buddhism was introduced to China from India during Kanishka’s reign in the 1st century. Indian Buddhist monks and merchants played a key role in spreading and promoting Buddhism in China.

Question 12.
What does the term “civilization” signify?
Answer:
The term “civilization” signifies a well-organized and structured human society.

Question 13.
What is the origin of the word “civilization”?
Answer:
The word “civilization” originates from the Latin term ‘civilis’, which translates to city or city-state.

Question 14.
How can civilization be defined?
Answer:
Civilization can be defined as the material and cultural progress humanity achieves over time.

Question 15.
Where were the world’s early civilizations established?
Answer:
The early civilizations of the world were primarily established along the banks of major rivers.

Question 16.
What title was given to Egyptian kings?
Answer:
Egyptian kings were referred to as ‘Pharaohs’.

Question 17.
What is another name for the Old Kingdom period in Egypt?
Answer:
The Old Kingdom period in Egypt is also called the Period of Pyramids.

Question 18.
What is another name for the Middle Kingdom period in Egypt?
Answer:
The Middle Kingdom period is often referred to as the Period of Feudal Lords.

Question 19.
Who was Hatshepsut’s father?
Answer:
Hatshepsut’s father was Thutmose I.

Question 20.
Who was worshipped as the Sun God in ancient Egypt?
Answer:
The Egyptians worshipped Ra as their Sun God.

Question 21.
Who was considered the goddess of motherhood in ancient Egyptian mythology?
Answer:
The ancient Egyptians revered Isis as the goddess of motherhood.

Question 22.
What was a key belief held by the ancient Egyptians?
Answer:
The ancient Egyptians strongly believed in the concept of life after death.

Question 23.
What was papyrus used for in ancient Egypt?
Answer:
Papyrus served as a writing material for the ancient Egyptians.

Question 24.
What is the Pyramid of Giza?
Answer:
The Pyramid of Giza is a monumental tomb built for King Khufu.

Question 25.
What are the alternate names for Mesopotamia?
Answer:
Mesopotamia is often referred to as ‘The Cradle and Graveyard of Civilizations’ and ‘The Land of Shinar’.

Question 26.
Which Chinese ruler believed that people are naturally undisciplined?
Answer:
Shih Huang Ti believed that people are inherently undisciplined.

Question 27.
What significant theory was developed during the Zhou dynasty?
Answer:
The Zhou dynasty introduced the ‘Mandate of Heaven’ theory, which emphasized the divine origin of a ruler’s authority.

Question 28.
Which dynasty succeeded the Qin dynasty?
Answer:
The Han dynasty succeeded the Qin dynasty.

II. Answer in 2 words or 2 sentences.History of Ancient Civilization

Question 1.
List two key inventions that contributed to the development of civilizations.

Answer:
1. The invention of the wheel revolutionized professions such as pottery, carpentry, and blacksmithing and significantly improved transportation systems.
2. The discovery of agriculture around 6,000 B.C. transformed human life, enabling early humans to shift from a nomadic lifestyle to permanent settlements.

Question 2.
What is the definition of civilization?
Answer:
Civilization refers to material advancements and the organization of large groups of people within a specific geographic region.

Question 3.
Identify two ancient civilizations.
Answer:
Two notable ancient civilizations are the Egyptian Civilization and the Indus Valley Civilization.

Question 4.
Why are river valleys called the cradles of civilizations?

Answer:
The earliest human settlements, such as those in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China, were established along river valleys. These regions provided fertile land, ample water, and favourable conditions for agriculture and settlement. Rivers like the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, Hwang-Ho, and Yangtze-Sikiyang supported the growth of great civilizations, enabling them to flourish. Thus, river valleys are referred to as the cradles of civilizations.

Question 5.
Why is Egypt called the Gift of the Nile?

Answer:
Egypt is known as the “Gift of the Nile” because the river provided abundant food, fodder, and a consistent supply of water, which were essential for sustaining life and agriculture. The food security ensured by the Nile allowed people to pursue cultural and societal advancements. Originating in the equatorial forests of Africa, the Nile flows steadily throughout the year. Without the Nile, the Egyptian civilization would not have thrived. Hence, Egypt is called the “Gift of the Nile.”

Question 6.
Name any two Gods and Goddesses of Egypt.

Answer:
Ra was the Sun God, and Osiris was the God of the dead or the underworld. Isis, the Goddess of motherhood and wife of Osiris, was also worshipped. Additionally, Horus and Hathor were revered as minor deities.

Question 7.
Why is Mesopotamia called the ‘cradle and grave’ of civilizations?

Answer:
The fertile plains formed by the Euphrates and Tigris rivers provided ideal conditions for early human settlements. Villages grew as the population increased, eventually transforming into towns and cities. Mesopotamia became the birthplace of several great civilizations that thrived and later declined between 3500 and 500 B.C.E. For this reason, it is referred to as the “cradle and grave” of civilizations.

Question 8.
Write any two causes responsible for the decline of the Mesopotamian civilization.

Answer:
1. Internal conflicts among the rulers led to disunity and chaos.
2. The rulers were unable to establish a stable and effective political system.

Question 9.
Name the river valley on which Chinese civilization flourished.

Answer:
The Chinese civilization flourished in the river plains of the Hwang-Ho in northern China, as well as the Yangtze and Sikiyang rivers in southern China. These regions offered moderate challenges and basic resources, fostering the development of the civilization.

Question 10.
Who built the Great Wall of China and why?
Answer:
Shih Huang Ti, the greatest ruler of the Qin dynasty in China, built the Great Wall of China to protect the kingdom from Mongol invasions.

Question 11.
Mention any two important scientific inventions of the Chinese.
Answer:
The Chinese made significant scientific contributions, including the invention of rockets, the seismograph, and the mariner’s compass.

Question 12.
Name any two important philosophers of ancient China.
Answer:
Mencius, Confucius, and Lao-tse were among the most influential philosophers of ancient China.

Question 13.
Which were the first sites of human settlements?
Answer:
The earliest human settlements were established in regions such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China.

Question 14.
What was the political condition of the Egyptian civilization?
Answer:
In the early stages, people settled in villages that gradually developed into cities and later evolved into city-states. These city-states were ruled by kings, marking the pre-dynastic period of Egyptian civilization.

Question 15.
In how many ways can the rule of Egyptian dynasties be divided?
Answer:
The rule of Egyptian dynasties can be divided into three main periods:
1. The Old Kingdom
2. The Middle Kingdom
3. The New Kingdom

Question 16.
What are the important books by the ancient Egyptians?
Answer:
Some of the significant works of ancient Egyptian literature include The Book of the Dead, The Coffin Texts, The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, and The Tale of Anupu and Bitiu.

Question 17.
Who developed the calendar system?
Answer:
The Egyptians developed a solar calendar system consisting of 365 days, divided into 12 months, each with 30 days.

Question 18.
What is the Sphinx?
Answer:
The Sphinx is a monumental structure with the head of a man and the body of a lion. It was carved under the orders of Emperor Khafre and is located in front of the Pyramid of Giza. The structure is 240 feet long, 66 feet high, and was carved from a single piece of stone.

Question 19.
What areas did Mesopotamia include?
Answer:
Mesopotamia encompassed regions of present-day eastern Syria, southern Turkey, and most of Iraq.

Question 20.
Into how many groups was the Mesopotamian society divided?
Answer:
The Mesopotamian society was divided into four groups:
1. The Royals
2. The Priests
3. The Rich Landlords and Merchants
4. The Slaves

Question 21.
What does the word Shih Hu Wang Ti mean?
Answer:
Shih Hu Wang Ti, the greatest ruler of China from the Qin dynasty, means “First Emperor.” Shih translates to “first,” and Hu Wang Ti means “emperor.”

Question 22.
Who was Wu Ti?
Answer:
Wu Ti was a renowned ruler of the Han dynasty. He divided the empire into 13 provinces and centralized the administration, strengthening the governance system.

Question 23.
Mention some major inventions of the ancient Chinese.
Answer:
The ancient Chinese made several notable inventions, including silk, tea, paper, brushes for painting and writing, the abacus, acupuncture, the rudder, gunpowder, glass, pottery, porcelain, rockets, the spoon, forks, and the umbrella.

Question 24.
Write about the art and architecture of ancient China.
Answer:
The Chinese excelled in art and architecture. They created magnificent paintings on silk cloth, tomb walls, pots, and paper. They also mastered the art of casting bronze statues of animals and mythical creatures. The Great Wall of China and numerous pagodas stand as remarkable examples of their architectural prowess.

Question 25.
Write about Chinese sculpture.
Answer:
The ancient Chinese developed the art of casting bronze statues of animals and mythical creatures, particularly during the Shang and Chou Dynasties. Their sculptures were deeply influenced by Buddhism, leading to the creation of numerous stone-carved statues of Bodhisattvas.

Question 26.
What is Terracotta Sculpture?
Answer:
The Terracotta Sculpture refers to the life-sized army of over 8,000 warriors and horses placed in the tomb of the first Qin Emperor. This remarkable Terracotta Army showcases the incredible craftsmanship of ancient China.

Question 27.
How is the political history of China classified?
Answer:
The political history of China is classified into two major eras:
1. Ancient Era: 2100–221 B.C.E.
2. Imperial Era: 221 B.C.E.–1911 C.E.

III. Answer in 15 – 20 sentences (each carries 5 marks).History of Ancient Civilization

Question 1.
Define civilization. Distinguish between civilization and culture.

Answer:
The term “civilization” originates from the Latin word civic, which means city or city-state. It refers to a more developed and refined way of living.
The differences between culture and civilization are as follows:

Culture:

1. Culture is internal and reflects the ideas, values, and beliefs of people.
2. It includes art, literature, religion, philosophy, food, clothing, customs, and traditions.
3. Culture cannot be measured in specific terms.
4. It represents how people think, behave, and interact with one another.
5. Culture does not always follow a linear path of advancement.
6. Culture precedes civilization in development.
7. A culture can exist independently, without the presence of civilization.

Civilization:

1. Civilization is external and visible through physical developments in society.
2. It consists of infrastructure such as cities, villages, buildings, bridges, transportation systems, and technology.
3. Civilization can be quantified and assessed in terms of progress.
4. It involves material achievements and innovations that improve the quality of life.
5. Civilization is constantly evolving and advancing.
6. Civilization develops after culture.
7. Civilization cannot exist without culture as its foundation.

Question 2.
Discuss the factors that contributed to the growth of civilizations.

Answer:
Several factors played a key role in the development of early civilizations, including:
1. Fertile Soil: The deposition of nutrient-rich alluvial soil from river floods supported agriculture, enabling communities to grow crops effectively.
2. Reliable Water Supply: Rivers provided a steady source of water for irrigation, drinking, and other domestic uses, supporting stable settlements.
3. Favorable Climate: The mild and consistent climate in river valleys created ideal conditions for human habitation and agriculture.
4. Abundant Resources: These areas offered plentiful food sources such as grains, fruits, and vegetables, as well as ample fodder for domesticated animals.
5. Fishing Opportunities: Rivers also supported fishing, contributing to a varied and sustainable diet.
6. Trade and Communication: Rivers served as natural transportation routes, fostering trade, communication, and cultural exchanges among communities.

These factors minimized the need for humans to wander in search of food and reduced the risks to their survival. This stability allowed people to dedicate time to creative and productive endeavours, which contributed to advancements in technology, art, and governance.

Early humans learned to work with metals, craft tools, cultivate land, and build structures from wood and stone. They developed vessels, boats, weapons, furniture, clothing, jewellery, and other items essential for a more sophisticated and organized way of life. This leisure and productivity laid the foundation for the growth of civilizations.

Question 3.
Explain the political conditions of the Egyptian civilization.

Answer:
The early Egyptians initially lived in villages, which eventually grew into cities, and later formed city-states. These city-states were ruled by kings during what is referred to as the pre-dynastic period. Frequent conflicts occurred between the city-states, with stronger ones conquering weaker ones. This led to the emergence of kingdoms. Over 3,000 years, approximately 30 dynasties ruled Egypt, with no dynasty lasting more than 6-7 generations.
The Egyptian kings, known as Pharaohs, were regarded as divine representatives of gods on Earth. They held immense power and authority. Around 3000 B.C.E., Pharaoh Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt and established Memphis as the capital. Egyptian governance featured a strong central government, absolute monarchy, efficient administration, and strict enforcement of laws.

The rule of the Egyptian dynasties is divided into three main phases: [History of Ancient Civilization]

1. The Period of the Old Kingdom:
This phase, also called the “Period of Pyramids,” was marked by strong Pharaohs who wielded significant power. A council of elders existed to advise the Pharaoh, but their advice was not binding. The Pharaohs appointed a Vizier, or Prime Minister, who managed administration, justice, and the treasury. Local officials maintained records and managed accounts.

2. The Period of the Middle Kingdom:
Known as the “Period of Feudal Lords,” this era saw the rise of powerful feudal lords who challenged the authority of the Pharaohs, leading to internal conflicts and political instability. However, the Pharaoh Amenhotep I restored order and reasserted the central authority of the Pharaohs.

3. The Period of the New Kingdom:
During this period, Egypt became a powerful empire with a strong military. Pharaoh Thutmose I expanded Egyptian territory through conquests. His daughter, Hatshepsut, became the first female ruler in recorded history, reigning as Empress for 21 years and leaving a significant legacy.
Each of these periods showcased the evolution of Egyptian political systems, from city-state conflicts to centralized kingdoms and expansive empires.

Question 4.
Write a short note on the learning and literature of the Egyptian civilization.

Answer:
The Egyptians developed one of the earliest forms of writing, known as pictographic writing, called Hieroglyphics. The term “glyph” means a sign, and hieroglyphics consisted of hundreds of signs, with some representing entire words and others indicating specific sounds. The writing was done on papyrus, a material derived from the papyrus plant. Notable works of literature from ancient Egypt include The Book of the Dead, Coffin Texts, The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, and The Tales of Anupu and Bitiu.

Egyptians possessed advanced knowledge in various fields, including medicine, geometry, astronomy, mathematics, and calendar systems. Most scholars of the time were members of the priestly class. The construction of massive pyramids is a testament to their expertise in geometry and arithmetic. Egyptians were also pioneers in the use of fractions.

In astronomy, they distinguished between stars and planets. Their solar calendar, based on the sun, divided the year into 365 days, with 12 months of 30 days each and an additional 5 days. They categorized the year into three seasons, each lasting four months. Around 1500 B.C.E., Egyptians invented the shadow clock to measure time during the day. An example of this clock is preserved in the Berlin Museum, showcasing their ingenuity in timekeeping.

Question 5.
Write a note on the Art and Architecture of the ancient Egyptians.

Answer:
The ancient Egyptians were exceptional builders and artists, with their art and architecture reflecting their culture and beliefs. They constructed temples to honor their gods and pyramids as tombs for their kings, showcasing the skill and organization of their craftsmen and labourers.

The Sphinx, with the head of a man and the body of a lion, was carved under Emperor Khaphre. It measures 240 feet in length and 66 feet in height, carved from a single stone. The Pyramid of Giza, built as a tomb for King Khufu, is the largest and most impressive pyramid. Standing 481 feet high and occupying 13 acres, it was constructed using 2.3 million stone blocks averaging 2.5 tons each. A million labourers worked for 20 years to complete it.

The pyramids featured grand entrances, roads lined with statues of Sphinxes, and tall obelisks. During festivals, statues of gods were paraded into temples through these grand pathways. Over 90 smaller pyramids remain standing, a testament to the Egyptians’ technical expertise and administrative capability. These architectural marvels continue to inspire awe, even after 4,000 years.

Question 6.
Write a short note on the Code of Hammurabi.

Answer:
Hammurabi, the Babylonian king who ruled Sumer around 2123–2081 B.C.E., was a great conqueror and administrator. He is best known for compiling the Code of Hammurabi, one of history’s earliest legal codes. It included 282 laws covering various aspects of life, such as property, trade, labour, marriage, and the rights of men, women, and slaves.

The laws, engraved on a black stone, depict Hammurabi receiving them from Shamash, the Sun God. The code combined fair regulations with harsh punishments, holding the state responsible for ensuring justice and deterring crimes. It also emphasized equality and property rights, including those for women and slaves, making it a monumental achievement in legal history.

Question 7.
Write about the socio-economic conditions of Mesopotamia.

Answer:
1. Social Conditions:
Mesopotamian society was divided into four classes:
• Royals: Held the highest authority.
• Priests: Enjoyed high status and administrative roles.
• Rich Landlords and Merchants: Occupied the middle tier, including farmers, artists, craftsmen, and shopkeepers.
• Slaves: The lowest class, who could be bought and sold.

Nobles inherited power and commanded prestige in administration and the military. Women had significant rights, including property ownership and social, religious, and economic freedom.

2. Economic Conditions:
Agriculture was the primary occupation, supported by cattle rearing and dairy farming. Mesopotamians were skilled in water management, using canals, dykes, embankments, and storage basins for irrigation. They are credited with inventing the Shadoof for artificial irrigation.

Wheat, barley, fruits, and dates were major crops and were exported in large quantities. Trade evolved from the barter system to the use of metal coins. They exported goods like fiber clothes, hides, and dates while importing metals. Mesopotamians had trade relations with India and Egypt, and horses and donkeys were commonly used for transportation.

Question 8.
Write a note on Confucius and his philosophy.

Answer:
Confucius, one of China’s greatest philosophers, was born in the Kingdom of Lu in 571 B.C.E. Orphaned at the age of 3, he faced numerous hardships growing up. He learned archery and music and married at 19, but chose to leave family life at 23. Throughout his life, he worked as a teacher, editor, judge, and minister, gaining recognition as a profound philosopher and educator.
The philosophy of Confucius, known as Confucianism, is rooted in traditional Chinese beliefs. He emphasized family loyalty, ancestor worship, respect for elders, and social unity.
Key Teachings of Confucius:

1. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others. (The golden rule of Confucius)
2. Character is the foundation of society.
3. Wisdom begins at home.
4. A great man acts before he speaks and speaks according to his actions.
5. Society thrives on the obedience of children to parents, wives to husbands, and students to teachers.
6. He opposed excessive taxation and harsh punishments.
7. To see what is right and not do it shows a lack of courage or principle.
8. He advocated for employing the unemployed.
9. The government should protect vulnerable groups such as orphans, the elderly, widows, the sick, and the disabled.

Question 9.
Write a note on the Art and Architecture of China.

Answer:
1. Art of Painting:
The Chinese developed exquisite painting techniques, creating artworks on silk, tomb walls, pottery, and paper. Tomb paintings were believed to help protect the deceased and guide their souls to the afterlife.
2. Sculpture:
The Chinese excelled in casting bronze statues of animals and mythical creatures, especially during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Influenced by Buddhism, they also crafted numerous stone statues of Bodhisattvas. A notable example of their sculpting skill is the Terracotta Army, consisting of over 8,000 life-size warriors and horses, found in the tomb of the first Qin Emperor.
3. Architecture:
The Chinese were exceptional builders, with the Great Wall of China being one of their greatest architectural achievements. Stretching 2,380 km, it was built to protect against Mongol invasions. It stands 22 feet high and 20 feet wide, with watchtowers every 300 feet, some rising to 400 feet.

In addition to defensive structures, the Chinese constructed grand palaces, though most of these were made from wood and mud and have not survived. They also built iconic Buddhist temples called Pagodas, such as the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda and the Jade Pagoda. The Temple of the Sleeping Buddha, located outside present-day Beijing, is another significant architectural site.

Question 10.
Write a note on the writing and literature of China.

Answer:
Chinese writing originated during the Shang dynasty and evolved significantly under the Qin dynasty. Unlike languages with alphabets, Chinese writing is based on characters, with over 40,000 in total. It began as pictographs and eventually developed into logograms, forming one of the world’s oldest continuous writing systems.

Chinese script played a key role in unifying the culture and influenced other East Asian scripts, including those of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. The script is traditionally written from top to bottom. The invention of paper, silk, and ink significantly contributed to the growth of writing and literature.

Chinese literature encompasses prose, poetry, philosophy, and history. During the Han and Tang dynasties, poetry reached exceptional levels. The Imperial Library of the Han dynasty housed thousands of volumes covering a wide range of subjects, including philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and war. Among the greatest poets was Tai-Li-Po, who wrote 30 volumes of verse, and Tu-Fu, also renowned for his poetry.

Additionally, the Chinese excelled in fields such as geography, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and eclipse prediction, further contributing to their literary and scientific legacy.

Question 11.
Write a note on the inventions that have helped in the growth of civilizations.

Answer:
Several inventions have significantly contributed to the growth of civilizations. The use of fire, domestication of animals for milk and meat, creation of tools, weapons, fishing nets, and clay pots, as well as the discovery of weaving and the construction of huts and houses, revolutionized human life. New methods of transport, such as the use of animals and carts, also played a crucial role.

The invention of the wheel marked a turning point, transforming professions like pottery, carpentry, blacksmithing, and transportation. This invention greatly accelerated the pace of civilization’s progress. Around 6000 B.C.E., the discovery of agriculture brought about a monumental change. Cultivating land provided a stable food supply throughout the year, secured fodder for animals, and encouraged humans to settle in one place, fostering the development of organized communities and societies.

Question 12.
What is a River Valley? What is meant by ‘The Cradles of Civilization’?

Answer:
River valleys are regions along rivers with fertile soil, abundant water for drinking and irrigation, and wide, flat lands conducive to settlement. These areas often enjoy warm climates, making them ideal for human habitation and agriculture.

The term “Cradles of Civilization” refers to the regions where some of the earliest human civilizations emerged. Humans, who appeared around 5.6 million years ago, began leading a civilized life approximately 7,000 years ago. The fertile valleys of rivers like the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, Hwang-Ho, and Yangtze were key sites of early human settlement. These regions provided the resources necessary for humans to form communities, develop agriculture, and build organized societies, making them the foundational hubs for the growth of ancient civilizations.

Question 13.
What are the characteristics of a civilization?

Answer:
The key characteristics of a civilization include:
1. A community of people with defined livelihoods and organized settlement patterns.
2. A system of governance and administrative structure unique to the civilization.
3. A distinct social structure and cultural practices that set the society apart.
4. The discovery and utilization of various metals, which advanced over different periods.
5. The need for both internal and external security, which shaped the development of defence systems.
6. The establishment of intricate administrative systems, including bureaucracy and accounting, which led to the invention of writing.
7. The creation of complex economic systems involving land ownership, production distribution, personal property, taxation, barter, and currency.

Question 14.
What are the sources for learning about the ancient Egyptian Civilization?

Answer:
The ancient Egyptian civilization, which thrived for over 3,000 years, offers various archaeological and literary sources that help us reconstruct its history. Key sources include the pyramids, temples, sculptures like the Sphinx, and numerous paintings, tools, jewellery, and implements found in the pyramids. Hieroglyphic writing on papyrus and the Rosetta Stone inscription are also vital sources. The study of Egyptian civilization gained significant momentum after Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt between 1789 and 1802, which sparked renewed interest in its ancient history.

Question 15.
What were the causes of the decline of Egyptian civilization?

Answer:
The decline of the Egyptian civilization can be attributed to several factors:
1. The failure of rulers to establish a stable and effective political system.
2. Weak leadership that allowed feudal lords to gain control, leading to disorder and decay.
3. Social discontent caused by the exploitation of lower classes and religious intolerance, resulting in division within society.
4. Internal conflicts among rulers that caused instability and disunity.
5. Invasions by outside forces, such as the uncivilized invaders from Africa and Assyria, which destroyed temples and halted progress. These invaders had superior military skills.
6. The material prosperity and comfortable lifestyle led to a lack of independent thinking, which contributed to the civilization’s decline.

Question 16.
What are the salient features of Mesopotamian civilization?

Answer:
1. Political Life:
Early Mesopotamians established city-states that evolved into kingdoms and later empires. The king was both the head of the state and the religion, regarded as God’s representative on earth. Kings often held immense power, but military officers sometimes seized authority. Priests also played a crucial role in the administration. Provinces were governed by appointed officials, and a horse-drawn postal system facilitated communication across regions.

2. Hammurabi:
Hammurabi, the Babylonian king who ruled from 2123 to 2081 BCE, was a great conqueror and administrator. He united Sumer and Akkad, dividing the region into districts and personally overseeing governance. Hammurabi is known for his military success, building palaces, and temples, and fortifying Babylon. His reign marked a period of centralized control and efficient provincial administration.

3. Code of Hammurabi:
Hammurabi’s legacy is immortalized in his “Code of Law.” He compiled, classified, and improved existing laws, creating 282 codes that covered all aspects of life, including personal property, trade, and family matters. Engraved on black stone, the code features an image of Hammurabi receiving the laws from the sun god, Shamash. While the code included both enlightened laws and harsh punishments, it aimed to establish equality and gave women the right to own and inherit property. This monumental legal achievement remains a significant contribution to law and governance.

IV. Answer in 30 – 40 sentences. History of Ancient Civilization

Question 1.
Describe the contributions of Egyptian civilization.

Answer:
The Egyptian civilization thrived along the fertile banks of the Nile River, which provided abundant food, water, and resources. The river’s annual floods ensured food security, enabling the growth of civilization. Hence, Egypt is often referred to as “The Gift of the Nile.”

The early Egyptians settled in villages that eventually grew into cities and city-states. These city-states were initially ruled by kings, and after inter-city conflicts, they formed unified kingdoms. Egypt saw the rule of approximately 30 dynasties over 3000 years, with each dynasty lasting 6-7 generations. The history of Egyptian dynasties is divided into three periods: the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom.

• Old Kingdom (Period of Pyramids): Known for its strong Pharaohs, this era had an efficient administrative system, with a council of elders advising the king. Pharaohs appointed viziers to oversee administration, justice, and treasury, and local officers managed records and accounts.
• Middle Kingdom (Period of Feudal Lords): The power of local lords increased, often surpassing the Pharaoh’s authority, leading to internal conflicts and disorder.
• New Kingdom: Marked by the establishment of a powerful military, this period saw the expansion of Egypt’s empire through territorial conquests.

Egyptian society was organized into three main classes:

• Upper Class: Comprised of the royal family, priests, nobles, and military officers who lived in luxury.
• Middle Class: Included physicians, scribes, craftsmen, merchants, and farmers.
• Lower Class: Made up of slaves, who led harsh, labor-intensive lives.

The economy was primarily agrarian, with innovations in irrigation such as canals and shadoofs. They transformed hoe culture into plough culture for better agricultural output. Egyptians were skilled in crafts, manufacturing tools, weapons, and ornaments from brass, bronze, gold, and iron. They developed both internal and external trade networks, aided by advanced shipbuilding for navigation.

To fund the state, taxes were collected from farmers, traders, and craftsmen. The Egyptians also developed hieroglyphic writing, which combined pictographs for sounds and complete words. Papyrus was used for writing, and they possessed advanced knowledge of medicine, geometry, calendars, astronomy, and mathematics.

The construction of monumental pyramids and the Sphinx stands as a testament to their technical expertise and organizational capabilities. They even invented a shadow clock for timekeeping. State-controlled education ensured that knowledge was passed down systematically.

Question 2.
Describe the contributions of Mesopotamian civilization.

Answer:

• Agriculture was the cornerstone of Mesopotamian civilization, supported by cattle rearing and dairy farming. The Mesopotamians excelled in irrigation techniques, constructing bunds, canals, dykes, embankments, and storage basins to regulate water flow throughout the year. It is believed that they invented the shadoof, a device used for artificial irrigation.
• Initially, the Mesopotamians used a barter system, but they later adopted metal coins for trade. Their craftsmanship flourished in various fields such as weaving, dyeing, woodwork, pottery, jewelry-making, and metallurgy. They exported wooden goods and fibre clothing, establishing trade connections with Egypt and India.
• Due to the scarcity of stone, the Mesopotamians relied on brick and mud for construction, with only a few of their buildings surviving today. One notable example is King Nebuchadnezzar’s creation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, a palace garden considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
• The Mesopotamians were skilled artisans and sculptors, creating intricate images of animals and other figures. Archaeological excavations have uncovered student copybooks and clay libraries dating back 4,000 years. They developed cuneiform writing, a system that used flat bricks for inscription. Their literature includes many myths, legends, and the epic poem “Epic of Gilgamesh.”
• In astronomy, the Mesopotamians recognized the influence of the sun and moon on human life. They believed in astrology, which was closely tied to their astronomical studies. They divided the year into 12 months, totalling 354 days, and followed a lunar calendar. Their time system was based on 60-minute hours and 60-second minutes.
• Mesopotamians also made significant strides in medicine. Their book “Materia Medica” lists over 550 medicines derived from plants, minerals, and animals, and it also describes various diseases and their symptoms.
• Religion in Mesopotamia involved the worship of nature and numerous gods and goddesses. They built ziggurats, which were temple complexes with towering structures, serving as religious centres and educational institutions.
• The Mesopotamian administrative system was highly organized, with central and provincial governments. Governors were appointed to oversee provinces, and a horse-drawn postal system facilitated communication.
• Perhaps the most enduring contribution of the Mesopotamian civilization was the “Code of Hammurabi.” King Hammurabi, a skilled conqueror and administrator, created a comprehensive legal code that included 282 laws governing various aspects of life. The code combined progressive laws with harsh punishments, making it one of the earliest and most influential legal systems in history.

Question 3.
Describe the contributions of Chinese civilization.

Answer:
1. Art of Painting:
The Chinese developed impressive painting techniques, using silk cloth, tomb walls, pottery, and paper as their canvas. They believed that tomb paintings had a protective purpose, helping the souls of the deceased reach the afterlife.

2. Sculpture:
The Chinese mastered the art of casting bronze statues, often depicting animals and mythical creatures, especially during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. Influenced by Buddhism, they created numerous statues of Bodhisattvas in stone. One of the most notable examples of Chinese sculpture is the Terracotta Army, assembled for the tomb of the first Qin Emperor, with over 8,000 life-sized figures of warriors and horses.

The Chinese were also great builders. The Great Wall of China stands as one of their most remarkable architectural feats, constructed primarily to defend against Mongol invasions. They also built Buddhist temples known as Pagodas, including the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, Jade Pagoda, Flask Pagoda, and the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha outside present-day Beijing.

3. Writing and Literature:
The art of writing was developed during the Shang period, and the script was standardized during the Qin Dynasty. Unlike alphabetic systems, Chinese writing consists of characters, totalling more than 40,000, which began as pictographs and evolved into logograms. It remains the oldest continuously used writing system in the world.

Chinese writing played a significant role in cultural unification and influenced other East Asian languages, including Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese. It is written vertically, from top to bottom.

The invention of paper, silk, and ink propelled the growth of Chinese literature, which spanned prose, poetry, philosophy, and history. During the Han and Tang dynasties, Chinese poetry reached its pinnacle. In addition, the Chinese made advancements in fields like geography, geometry, arithmetic, calendars, and astronomy, with the ability to predict eclipses with great accuracy.

Notable Chinese inventions include silk, tea, ink, brushes for writing and painting, the abacus, acupuncture, the rudder, gunpowder, glass, pottery, porcelain, rockets, the umbrella, the seismograph, and the mariner’s compass.

4. Philosophy and Religion:
Three influential philosophers in Chinese history are Lao Tse, Confucius, and Mencius, whose teachings greatly shaped Chinese religious thought. Lao Tse’s philosophy, known as Taoism, emphasized non-violence, simplicity, respect for wisdom, and living in harmony with nature. Confucius’s philosophy, known as Confucianism, focused on traditional Chinese values such as loyalty to family, veneration of ancestors, respect for elders, and unity within society. These teachings became central to Chinese culture and governance.

Question 4.
Briefly explain the History of Ancient Civilizations.

Answer:
Ancient civilizations emerged due to key inventions such as the use of fire, the domestication of animals, the creation of tools and utensils, and the development of agriculture. Around 6000 B.C.E., the discovery of agriculture transformed human life by providing food security and fostering settlement.

Most civilizations developed along fertile river valleys, such as those of the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, Huang He, and Yangtze, which supported agriculture, trade, and communication. These river valleys are often called the “Cradles of Civilization.”

The growth of civilizations was influenced by factors like fertile soil, a reliable water supply, favourable climates, and abundant food. These conditions led to the development of villages, towns, and cities, allowing humans to settle, discover new technologies, and build communities.

Civilizations shared several key characteristics: [History of Ancient Civilization]

1. Organized livelihood and settlement patterns.
2. A system of administration.
3. Distinct social structures and cultural traits.
4. The discovery and use of metals.
5. The need for internal and external security.
6. The emergence of complex administrative systems and writing for record-keeping.